Preface xxxi Acknowledgements xxxii What is pragmatics? 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Defining pragmatics 1.3 From abstract meaning to contextual meaning 1.3.1 Assigning sense in context 1.3.2 Assigning reference in context 1.3.3 Structural ambiguity 1.3.4 Interaction of sense, reference and structure 1.3.5 Ambiguity and intentionality 1.4 Utterance meaning： the first level of speaker meaning 1.4.1 Importance of utterance meaning 1.5 Force： the second level of speaker meaning 1.5.1 Understanding both utterance meaning and force 1.5.2 Understanding utterance meaning but not force 1.5.3 Understanding force but not utterance meaning 1.5.4 Understanding neither utterance meaning nor force 1.5.5 Interrelationship of utterance meaning and force 1.6 Definitions ofpragmatics （revisited） 1.6.1 Speaker meaning 1.6.2 Utterance interpretation 1.6.3 Pragmatics： meaning in interaction 1.7 Summary 2 Speech acts 2.1 J. L. Austin 2.2 Ordinary language philosophy 2.3 Logical positivism and truth conditional semantics 2.4 The performative hypothesis 2.4.1 Metalinguistic performatives 2.4.2 Ritual performatives 2.4.2.1 Felicity conditions 2.4.2.2 Explicit reference to felicity conditions 2.4.3 Collaborative performatives 2.4.4 Group performatives 2.4.5 Overlap of categories 2.4.6 Cross-cultural differences in use ofperformatives 2.4.7 Collapse of Austins performative hypothesis 2.4.7.1 The grammatical distinctiveness of performatives 2.4.7.2 Do performatives always perform actions? 2.4.7.3 How to do things without performative verbs 2.4.8 Explicit and implicit performatives 2.5 Utterances as actions 2.5.1 Locution, illocution, perlocution 2.5.2 Speech acts 2.6 Conclusion 3 Conversational implicature 3.1 Introduction 3.2 H. P. Grice 3.3 Implicature 3.3.1 Conventional implicature 3.3.2 Conversational implicature 3.3.3 Implicature and inference 3.4 The Cooperative Principle 3.5 The four conversational maxims 3.5.1 Observing the maxims 3.5.2 Non-observance of the maxims …… 4 Approaches to pragmatics 5 Pragmatics and indirectness 6 Theories of politeness
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