PREFACE 1 PSYCHOLOGY AND LIFE 3 WHAT MAKES PSYCHOLOGY UNIQUE？ 4 Definitions 4 The Goals of Psychology 5 PSYCHOLOGY IN YOUR LIFE：CAN PSYCHOLOGY HELP FIND ME A CAREER？ 8 THE EVOLUTION OF MODERN PSYCHOLOGY 9 Psychology’s Historical Foundations 9 Current Psychological Perspectives 11 CRITICAL THINKING IN YOUR LIFE：WHY DO FRIENDSHIPS END？ 16 WHAT PSYCHOLOGISTS DO 17 HOW TO USE THIS BOOK 19 Study Strategies 19 Study Techniques 20 Special Features 20 RECAPPING MAIN POINTS 21 KEY TERMS 21 2 RESEARCH METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY 25 THE PROCESS OF RESEARCH 26 Observer Biases and Operational Definitions 27 Experimental Methods：Alternative Explanations and the Need for Controls 30 Correlational Methods 33 Subliminal Influence？ 34 PSYCHOLOGY IN YOUR LIFE：CAN SURVEY RESEARCH AFFECT YOUR ATTITUDES？ 36 PSYCHOLOGICAL MEASUREMENT 37 Achieving Reliability and Validity 37 Self-Report Measures 37 Behavioral Measures and Observations 38 ETHICAL ISSUES IN HUMAN AND ANIMAL RESEARCH 40 Informed Consent 40 Risk/Gain Assessment 41 Intentional Deception 41 Debriefing 41 Issues in Animal Research 41 BECOMING A WISER RESEARCH CONSUMER 42 CRITICAL THINKING IN YOUR LIFE：HOW CAN YOU EVALUATE PSYCHOLOGICAL INFORMATION ON THE WEB？ 43 RECAPPING MAIN POINTS 44 KEY TERMS 44 STATISTICAL SUPPLEMENT 46 UNDERSTANDING STATISTICS：ANALYZING DATA AND FORMING CONCLUSIONS 46 ANALYZING THE DATA 47 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS 48 INFERENTIAL STATISTICS 51 BECOMING A WISE CONSUMER OF STATISTICS 53 KEY TERMS 53 3 THE BIOLOGICAL AND EVOLUTIONARY BASES OF BEHAVIOR 55 HEREDITY AND BEHAVIOR 56 Evolution and Natural Selection 57 Variation in the Human Genotype 59 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM IN ACTION 63 The Neuron 63 Action Potentials 65 Synaptic Transmission 67 Neurotransmitters and Their Functions 68 BIOLOGY AND BEHAVIOR 70 Eavesdropping on the Brain 70 The Nervous System 74 Brain Structures and Their Functions 75 Hemispheric Lateralization 81 The Endocrine System 84 Plasticity and Neurogenesis：Our Changing Brains 85 CRITICAL THINKING IN YOUR LIFE：WHAT DOES “IT’S GENETIC” MEAN？ 71 PSYCHOLOGY IN YOUR LIFE：WHY DOES MUSIC HAVE AN IMPACT ON HOW YOU FEEL？ 87 RECAPPING MAIN POINTS 88 KEY TERMS 89 4 SENSATION AND PERCEPTION 93 SENSING, ORGANIZING, IDENTIFYING, AND RECOGNIZING 94 The Proximal and Distal Stimuli 95 Reality, Ambiguity, and Illusions 97 SENSORY KNOWLEDGE OF THE WORLD 99 Psychophysics 99 From Physical Events to Mental Events 102 THE VISUAL SYSTEM 103 The Human Eye 103 The Pupil and the Lens 103 The Retina 104 Processes in the Brain 105 Seeing Color 108 CRITICAL THINKING IN YOUR LIFE：CAN TECHNOLOGY RESTORE SIGHT？ 108 HEARING 112 The Physics of Sound 112 Psychological Dimensions of Sound 112 The Physiology of Hearing 113 YOUR OTHER SENSES 117 Smell 117 Taste 117 Touch and Skin Senses 118 The Vestibular and Kinesthetic Senses 119 Pain 120 ORGANIZATIONAL PROCESSES IN PERCEPTION 121 Attentional Processes 121 Principles of Perceptual Grouping 124 Spatial and Temporal Integration 125 Motion Perception 126 Depth Perception 126 Perceptual Constancies 129 PSYCHOLOGY IN YOUR LIFE：WHY IS EATING“HOT”FOOD PAINFUL？ 122 IDENTIFICATION AND RECOGNITION PROCESS 131 Bottom-Up and Top-Down Processes 131 The Influence of Contexts and Expectations 133 Final Lessons 134 RECAPPING MAIN POINTS 134 KEY TERMS 135 5 MIND, CONSCIOUSNESS, AND ALTERNATE STATES 139 THE CONTENTS OF CONSCIOUSNESS 140 Awareness and Consciousness 140 Studying the Contents of Consciousness 142 THE FUNCTIONS OF CONSCIOUSNESS 143 The Uses of Consciousness 143 Studying the Functions of Consciousness 144 SLEEP AND DREAMS 145 Circadian Rhythms 145 The Sleep Cycle 146 Why Sleep 148 Sleep Disorders 148 Dreams：Theater of the Mind 150 PSYCHOLOGY IN YOUR LIFE：DO YOU GET ENOUGH SLEEP？ 150 ALTERED STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS 152 Lucid Dreaming 153 Hypnosis 153 Meditation 155 Religious Ecstasy 156 MIND-ALTERING DRUGS 157 Dependence and Addiction 157 Varieties of Psychoactive Drugs 158 CRITICAL THINKING IN YOUR LIFE：DOES ECSTASY HARM THE BRAIN？ 160 RECAPPING MAIN POINTS 162 KEY TERMS 162 6 LEARNING AND BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS 165 THE STUDY OF LEARNING 166 What Is Learning？ 166 Behaviorism and Behavior Analysis 167 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING：LEARNING PREDICTABLE SIGNALS 168 Pavlov’s Surprising Observation 168 Processes of Conditioning 170 Focus on Acquisition 172 Applications of Classical Conditioning 174 OPERANT CONDITIONING：LEARNING ABOUT CONSEQUENCES 176 The Law of Effect 176 Experimental Analysis of Behavior 178 Reinforcement Contingencies 179 Properties of Reinforcers 182 Schedules of Reinforcement 183 Shaping 186 PSYCHOLOGY IN YOUR LIFE：HOW DOES CLASSICAL CONDITIONING AFFECT CANCER TREATMENT？ 177 CRITICAL THINKING IN YOUR LIFE：TO SPANK OR NOT TO SPANK 184 BIOLOGY AND LEARNING 187 Instinctual Drift 187 Taste-Aversion Learning 188 COGNITIVE INFLUENCES ON LEARNING 190 Animal Cognition 190 Observational Learning 192 RECAPPING MAIN POINTS 195 KEY TERMS 195 7 MEMORY 199 WHAT IS MEMORY？ 200 Types of Memories 200 An Overview of Memory Processes 202 MEMORY USE FOR THE SHORT-TERM 203 Iconic Memory 204 Short-Term Memory 205 Working Memory 207 LONG-TERM MEMORY：ENCODING AND RETRIEVAL 209 Retrieval Cues 209 Context and Encoding 210 The Processes of Encoding and Retrieval 213 Why We Forget 215 Improving Memory for Unstructured Information 217 Metamemory 218 CRITICAL THINKING IN YOUR LIFE：HOW CAN MEMORY RESEARCH HELP YOU PREPARE FOR EXAMS？ 219 STRUCTURES IN LONG-TERM MEMORY 220 Memory Structures 220 Remembering as a Reconstructive Process 224 BIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF MEMORY 227 Searching for the Engram 227 Amnesia 228 Brain Imaging 229 PSYCHOLOGY IN YOUR LIFE：WHY DOES ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE AFFECT MEMORY？ 227 RECAPPING MAIN POINTS 231 KEY TERMS 232 8 COGNITIVE PROCESSES 235 STUDYING COGNITION 237 Discovering the Processes of Mind 237 Mental Processes and Mental Resources 237 LANGUAGE USE 240 Language Production 240 Language Understanding 243 Language and Evolution 247 Language,Thought,and Culture 248 PSYCHOLOGY IN YOUR LIFE：WHY AND HOW DO PEOPLE LIE？ 249 VISUAL COGNITION 250 Using Visual Representations 250 Combining Verbal and Visual Representations 252 PROBLEM SOLVING AND REASONING 255 Problem Solving 255 Deductive Reasoning 257 Inductive Reasoning 260 JUDGMENT AND DECISION MAKING 262 Heuristics and Judgment 262 The Psychology of Decision Making 265 CRITICAL THINKING IN YOUR LIFE：CAN POLITICAL EXPERTS PREDICT THE FUTURE? 269 RECAPPING MAIN POINTS 270 KEY TERMS 270 9 INTELLIGENCE AND INTELLIGENCE ASSESSMENT 273 WHAT IS ASSESSMENT？ 274 History of Assessment 274 Basic Features of Formal Assessment 275 INTELLIGENCE ASSESSMENT 278 The Origins of Intelligence Testing 278 IQ Tests 278 Extremes of Intelligence 280 THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE 282 Psychometric Theories of Intelligence 282 Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence 284 Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences and Emotional Intelligence 285 CRITICAL THINKING IN YOUR LIFE：CAN YOU TRUST ASSESSMENT ON THE WEB？ 283 PSYCHOLOGY IN YOUR LIFE：DO THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE MATTER？ 287 THE POLITICS OF INTELLIGENCE 287 The History of Group Comparisons 288 Heredity and IQ 289 Environments and IQ 291 Culture and the Validity of IQ Tests 293 CREATIVITY 295 Assessing Creativity and the Link to Intelligence 295 Extremes of Creativity 295 ASSESSMENT AND SOCIETY 297 RECAPPING MAIN POINTS 299 KEY TERMS 299 10 HUMAN DEVELOPMENT ACROSS THE LIFE SPAN 303 STUDYING DEVELOPMENT 304 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT ACROSS THE LIFE SPAN 306 Prenatal and Childhood Development 306 Physical Development in Adolescence 310 Physical Changes in Adulthood 311 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT ACROSS THE LIFE SPAN 312 Piaget’s Insights Into Mental Development 312 Contemporary Perspectives on Early Cognitive Development 314 Cognitive Development in Adulthood 318 PSYCHOLOGY IN YOUR LIFE：WILL YOUR BRAIN WORK DIFFERENTLY AS YOU AGE？ 320 ACQUIRING LANGUAGE 321 Perceiving Speech and Perceiving Words 321 Learning Word Meanings 322 Acquiring Grammar 323 SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT ACROSS THE LIFE SPAN 324 Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages 325 Social Development in Childhood 326 Social Development in Adolescence 331 Social Development in Adulthood 333 CRITICAL THINKING IN YOUR LIFE：HOW DOES DAY CARE AFFECT CHILDREN’S DEVELOPMENT？330 SEX AND GENDER DIFFERENCES 336 Sex Differences 336 Gender Identity and Gender Roles 337 MORAL DEVELOPMENT 338 Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning 338 Gender and Cultural Perspectives on Moral Reasoning 340 LEARNING TO AGE SUCCESSFULLY 341 RECAPPING MAIN POINTS 342 KEY TERMS 343 11 MOTIVATION 347 UNDERSTANDING MOTIVATION 348 Functions of Motivational Concepts 348 Sources of Motivation 349 A Hierarchy of Needs 352 EATING 353 The Physiology of Eating 354 The Psychology of Eating 355 PSYCHOLOGY IN YOUR LIFE：HOW DOES GENETICS CONTRIBUTE TO OBESITY？ 356 SEXUAL BEHAVIORS 360 Nonhuman Sexual Behaviors 360 Human Sexual Arousal and Response 362 The Evolution of Sexual Behaviors 363 Sexual Norms 364 Homosexuality 366 MOTIVATION FOR PERSONAL ACHIEVEMENT 370 Need for Achievement 368 Attributions for Success and Failure 369 Work and Organizational Psychology 371 CRITICAL THINKING IN YOUR LIFE：HOW DOES MOTIVATION AFFECT ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT·373 RECAPPING MAIN POINTS 374 KEY TERMS 374 12 EMOTION, STRESS, AND HEALTH 377 EMOTIONS 378 Basic Emotions and Culture 378 Theories of Emotion 381 Functions of Emotions 385 PSYCHOLOGY IN YOUR LIFE：WHY ARE SOME PEOPLE HAPPIER THAN OTHERS？ 388 STRESS OF LIVING 389 Physiological Stress Reactions 389 Psychological Stress Reactions 392 Coping with Stress 397 Positive Effects of Stress 401 HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY 402 The Biopsychosocial Model of Health 403 Health Promotion 403 Treatment 406 Personality and Health 409 Job Burnout and the Health-Care System 410 A Toast to Your Health 411 CRITICAL THINKING IN YOUR LIFE：CAN HEALTH PSYCHOLOGY HELP YOU BE A HEALTHY PERSON BY 2010？ 407 RECAPPING MAIN POINTS 413 KEY TERMS 413 13 UNDERSTANDING HUMAN PERSONALITY 417 TYPE AND TRAIT PERSONALITY THEORIES 418 Categorizing by Types 418 Describing with Traits 419 Traits and Heritability 423 Do Traits Predict Behaviors？ 423 Evaluation of Type and Trait Theories 425 PSYCHODYNAMIC THEORIES 425 Freudian Psychoanalysis 425 Evaluation of Freudian Theory 429 Extending Psychodynamic Theories 430 PSYCHOLOGY IN YOUR LIFE：WHY ARE SOME PEOPLE SHY？ 426 HUMANISTIC THEORIES 432 Features of Humanistic Theories 432 Evaluation of Humanistic Theories 433 SOCIAL-LEARNING AND COGNITIVE THEORIES 434 Mischel’s Cognitive-Affective Personality Theory 435 Bandura’s Cognitive Social-Learning Theory 436 Cantor’s Social Intelligence Theory 438 Evaluation of Social-Learning and Cognitive Theories 438 SELF THEORIES 439 Dynamic Aspects of Self-Concepts 439 Self-Esteem and Self-Presentation 440 The Cultural Construction of Self 441 Evaluation of Self Theories 442 COMPARING PERSONALITY THEORIES 443 CRITICAL THINKING IN YOUR LIFE：WHO ARE YOU ON THE INTERNET？ 443 ASSESSING PERSONALITY 444 Objective Tests 444 Projective Tests 446 RECAPPING MAIN POINTS 448 KEY TERMS 448 14 PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS 451 THE NATURE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS 452 Deciding What Is Abnormal 452 The Problem of Objectivity 454 Classifying Psychological Disorders 454 The Etiology of Psychopathology 457 ANXIETY DISORDERS 459 Generalized Anxiety Disorder 459 Panic Disorder 459 Phobias 460 Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder 460 Posttraumatic Stress Disorder 461 Causes of Anxiety Disorders 462 MOOD DISORDERS 464 Major Depressive Disorder 464 Bipolar Disorder 465 Causes of Mood Disorders 465 Gender Differences in Depression 467 Suicide 468 PSYCHOLOGY IN YOUR LIFE：HOW CAN WE PINPOINT INTERACTIONS OF NATURE AND NURTURE？ 469 PERSONALITY DISORDERS 470 Borderline Personality Disorder 470 Antisocial Personality Disorder 471 SOMATOFORM AND DISSOCIATIVE DISORDERS 472 Somatoform Disorders 472 Dissociative Disorders 473 SCHIZOPHRENIC DISORDERS 474 Major Types of Schizophrenia 475 Causes of Schizophrenia 476 CRITICAL THINKING IN YOUR LIFE：IS “INSANITY” REALLY A DEFENSE？ 480 PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS OF CHILDHOOD 480 Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 481 Autistic Disorder 481 THE STIGMA OF MENTAL ILLNESS 482 RECAPPING MAIN POINTS 483 KEY TERMS 484 15 THERAPIES FOR PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS 487 THE THERAPEUTIC CONTEXT 488 Goals and Major Therapies 488 Therapists and Therapeutic Settings 489 Historical Perspectives on Institutional Treatment 490 PSYCHODYNAMIC THERAPIES 491 Freudian Psychoanalysis 491 Later Psychodynamic Therapies 493 PSYCHOLOGY IN YOUR LIFE：ARE LIVES HAUNTED BY REPRESSED MEMORIES? 494 BEHAVIOR THERAPIES 494 Counterconditioning 495 Contingency Management 496 Social-Learning Therapy 498 Generalization Techniques 499 COGNITIVE THERAPIES 501 Changing False Beliefs 501 Cognitive Behavioral Therapy 502 HUMANISTIC THERAPIES 502 Client-Centered Therapy 503 Gestalt Therapy 503 GROUP THERAPIES 504 Couple and Family Therapy 504 Community Support Groups 505 BIOMEDICAL THERAPIES 506 Drug Therapy 506 Psychosurgery 508 EC and rTMS 509 CRITICAL THINKING IN YOUR LIFE：DOES THERAPY AFFECT BRAIN ACTIVITY? 510 TREATMENT EVALUATION AND PREVENTION STRATEGIES 511 Evaluating Therapeutic Effectiveness 511 Prevention Strategies 512 RECAPPING MAIN POINTS 513 KEY TERMS 514 16 SOCIAL COGNITION AND RELATIONSHIPS 517 CONSTRUCTING SOCIAL REALITY 518 The Origins of Attribution Theory 519 The Fundamental Attribution Error 519 Self-Serving Biases 520 Expectations and Self-Fulfilling Prophecies 521 Behaviors That Confirm Expectations 522 ATTITUDES, ATTITUDE CHANGE, AND ACTION 524 Attitudes and Behaviors 524 Processes of Persuasion 525 Persuasion by Your Own Actions 527 Compliance 529 CRITICAL THINKING IN YOUR LIFE：DO LATE-NIGHT TV ADS REALLY WORK？ 532 PREJUDICE 531 Origins of Prejudice 531 Effects of Stereotypes 533 Reversing Prejudice 534 SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS 536 Liking 536 Loving 537 PSYCHOLOGY IN YOUR LIFE：CAN LASTING RELATIONSHIPS FORM ON THE INTERNET? 540 RECAPPING MAIN POINTS 541 KEY TERMS 541 17 SOCIAL PROCESSES, SOCIETY, AND CULTURE 545 THE POWER OF THE SITUATION 546 Roles and Rules 546 Social Norms 548 Conformity 549 Decision Making in Groups 552 Situational Power：Candid Camera Revelations 552 ALTRUISM AND PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR 553 The Roots of Altruism 553 Motives for Prosocial Behavior 555 The Effects of the Situation of Prosocial Behavior 556 CRITICAL THINKING IN YOUR LIFE：HOW CAN YOU GET PEOPLE TO VOLUNTEER? 558 AGGRESSION 559 Evolutionary Perspectives 559 Individual Differences 560 Situational Influences 561 Cultural Constraints 563 THE PSYCHOLOGY OF CONFLICT AND PEACE 566 Obedience to Authority 566 The Psychology of Genocide and War 569 Peace Psychology 572 A PERSONAL ENDNOTE 574 PSYCHOLOGY IN YOUR LIFE：HOW MIGHT RECONCILIATION BE POSSIBLE? 575 RECAPPING MAIN POINTS 576 KEY TERMS 576 ANSWER APPENDIX A-1 GLOSSARY G-1 REFERENCES R-1 NAME INDEX N-1 SUBJECT INDEX S-1 CREDITS C-1
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